King Jehu was the tenth king of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, who ruled the kingdom for most of the second half of the 9th century B.C.E. According to the Bible, Jehu ruled for 28 years (2 Kings 10:36) in Samaria. Information regarding the times and reign of Jehu can be found in the Bible, in Assyrian, Moabite, and Aramean records, and from archaeological data.

A former military official, Jehu was a usurper who perpetrated a military coup d’etat against King Jehoram, and exterminated the Omride Dynasty, which had been ruling Israel for several decades by that point. His coup – along with the events immediately before and after it – were some of the most key events in the history of the Northern Kingdom.

Lineage and Background

Who exactly was Jehu? Information regarding Jehu’s background mostly comes from the Bible, but archaeology can offer some useful clues, as well.

Jehu was a military official under King Jehoram of Israel (2 Kings 9:5). In earlier times, he may have been a member of the palace bodyguard under King Ahab (2 Kings 9:25).

In several places in the Bible, Jehu is called “Jehu son of Nimshi” (1 Kings 19:16; 2 Kings 9:20; see also 2 Chronicles 22:7), while in other places, he is called “Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, the son of Nimshi” (2 Kings 9:2, 14). The name “Nimshi” may refer to Jehu’s direct father or grandfather, but there is a good chance that it may have been the name of his clan. Archaeological excavations from sites in the Beth-shean Valley, such as Tel Rehov and Tel Amal’, have unearthed potsherds bearing the name “Nimshi” (eg. Ahituv and Mazar 2013, p. 212-213). Based on this, some, such as Omer Sergi, have proposed that the Nimshide Clan was based in the Beth-shean Valley, and that, thus, Jehu’s lineage such be traced there rather than to the hill country (Sergi 2019, p. 223-224). However, since the name Nimshi is also found in inscriptions from other locations, such as Samaria (Ahituv and Mazar 2013, Ibid), the identification of these inscriptions with the Nimshide Clan and the geographic location of this clan proposed by Sergi must remain tentative. 

Military Coup

In approximately 844 B.C.E, Hazael – a scion of the royal house in the Kingdom of Aram-Damascus – usurped the Aramean throne following the death of King Hadadezer (2 Kings 8:7-15; 2 Kings 8:7-15; RIMA 3, A.0. 102.40, lines i.25-ii.6). The usurpation of Hazael caused a breakdown in relations between Aram-Damascus and several states in the Levant which it had previously been allied to, including the Northern Kingdom of Israel.

Some time later, around 841 B.C.E., King Jehoram of Israel, along with King Ahaziah of Judah, decided to wage an offensive military campaign against Aram-Damascus in Transjordan, with the goal of capturing the strategic site of Ramoth-gilead (2 Kings 8:28, 29; 9:14b-16; Tel Dan Stele, lines 3-4). Despite Jehoram’s significant military power, and his alliance with Judah, the campaign failed, and the Arameans, under Hazael, successfully defeated the Israelite-Judahite joint offensive (2 Kings 8:28, 29; Tel Dan Stele, lines 7-9; for more information on this conflict, see my post here). 

Jehu was a military official in the conflict at Ramoth-gilead (2 Kings 9:1, 5). It was following the Israelite defeat at Ramoth-gilead – and, as we shall investigate below, the possible death of Jehoram and Ahaziah during the conflict – that Jehu launched a sudden military coup against King Jehoram and the ruling Omride Dynasty.

The military coup which Jehu waged in approximately 841 B.C.E. is documented primarily in the biblical narrative of its occurrence, found at 2 Kings 9-10. This account provides a detailed testimony to the process by which Jehu exterminated the Omride family and took power in Israel.

Many scholars believe that the narrative of Jehu’s coup contained in 2 Kings 9-10 originally derives from a propagandistic document written during the time of the Jehuite Dynasty in order to legitimize Jehu’s coup (eg. Hasegawa 2012, p. 39-41; Stith 2004; McKenzie 2014). This is mainly because the narrative clearly tries to justify Jehu’s coup from a moral and religious standpoint. Jehu’s coup is presented as authenticated by Elisha, a prophet of YHWH (2 Kings 9:1-4), and supported by the Israelite military (2 Kings 9:11-13), court officials in Jezreel (2 Kings 9:32-33), officials in Samaria (2 Kings 10:5-7), and by Jehonadab the Rechabite, evidently a prominent Israelite elite (2 Kings 10:15-16). Andrew M. King concludes that the narrative uses Assyrian royal motifs in order to justify Jehu’s military coup (King 2017). A document which attempts to legitimize Jehu’s coup best fits within a period of time when Jehu’s rule was under question, and so it seems very probable that the narrative was written during the time of the Jehuite Dynasty and later utilized by the Deuteronomistic Historian when composing the Books of Kings.

Another biblical source that describes Jehu’s coup is Hosea 1:4. This verse pronounces judgment upon the House of Jehu, and almost certainly refers to Jehu’s coup. 

Then the Lord said to Hosea, “Call him Jezreel, because I will soon punish the house of Jehu for the massacre at Jezreel, and I will put an end to the kingdom of Israel…”

Hosea 1:4

The “massacre at Jezreel” almost certainly is a reference to Jehu’s killing of the remaining members of the House of Omri at Jezreel, reported in 2 Kings 9-10. Since the text is written in third person, it is likely that it was authored by an editor rather than Hosea himself. Most scholars believe that the words of this text are meant to criticize Jehu for his killing of the Omride Dynasty, but some have argued that other interpretations are possible (eg. Bolen 2013, p. 33-38). If the former scholars are correct, the words in the Book of Hosea certainly constitute an independent historical source. 

Finally, the military coup of Jehu is attested on the Mesha Stele, a monumental commemorative inscription discovered in 1868 that was commissioned by Moabite king Mesha, a contemporary of Jehu. Lines 4-7 contain a reference to the earlier successful Israelite military campaigns waged against Moab, along with a reference to the fall of the Omride Dynasty.

“Omri was king of Israel, and he oppressed Moab for many days, for Chemosh was angry with his country. His son succeeded him, and he too said: I will oppress Moab. In my days he said th[is]. But I prevailed over him and over his house, and Israel perished utterly for ever” (see Na’aman 2007 for translation).

When discussing the fall of Omri’s unnamed son (‘him”; possibly either Ahab or Jehoram) and “his house” in line 7, the Mesha Stele uses a word that means something along the lines of “to look on” (Hasegawa 2012, p. 70), and is, in many cases, used to communicate that the speaker looked over and watched the defeat of their enemies (Hasegawa 2012, p. 70; Emerton 2001). Na’aman’s translation (referenced above) renders line 7, “I prevailed over him and his house”, but better translations would probably be, “I looked down upon him and his house…” (Hasegawa 2012, Ibid) or “I witnessed his defeat and that of his dynasty” (Baruchi-Unna 2017, p. 7). The Mesha inscription thus bears a direct witness to the downfall of the Omride Dynasty around his time, and this event can probably be identified with Jehu’s coup (Lemaire 2007).

The events of Jehu’s coup can roughly be reconstructed as follows. Jehu, after gaining the support of the Israelite military at Ramoth-gilead, must have traveled from there to Jezreel and Samaria and killed every member of the Omride Dynasty and anyone else who posed a possible threat to his kingship, in accordance with the general practices of usurpers. 2 Kings 9-10 report that he was responsible for the deaths of both Jehoram and Ahaziah; however, the Tel Dan Stele (lines 7-9) reports that these two were killed by Hazael. Jehu’s coup was ultimately a success, resulting in the end of the Omride Dynasty in Israel and the beginning of a new dynasty that would last nearly 100 years.

Chronology

According to 2 Kings 10:36, Jehu reigned as king of Israel for 29 years. This meant that he ruled for most of the second half of the 9th century B.C.E.

The absolute chronology of Jehu’s reign is primarily anchored by several records of Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser III (including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, discussed below) which mention that Jehu paid tribute to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in the eighteenth year of Shalmaneser III – in other words, in 841 B.C.E. (RIMA 3, A.O. 102.08). This means that Jehu’s reign must have begun some time prior to 841 B.C.E., but after c. 845/844 B.C.E., when King Hadadezer of Aram-Damascus died.

The following dates, however, have been proposed for the reign of King Jehu in the literature.

-845-818 B.C.E. (Laato 1986).

-842-815 B.C.E. (Albright 1945).

-841-814 B.C.E. (Thiele 1983).

Religious Policy

Regarding the religious policy of King Jehu, there is one possible clue within the biblical accounts.

According to 2 Kings 10:18-28, shortly after seizing power in Samaria, Jehu commanded the Israelites to “summon all the prophets of Baal, all his servants and all his priests” (2 Kings 10:19) to the temple of Baal (evidently the temple that Ahab constructed; see 1 Kings 16:32), claiming that he intended to gather them together to offer burnt offerings to Baal. “All the servants of Baal” came to the temple, and they “crowded into the temple of Baal until it was full from one end to the other” (2 Kings 10:21), and began preparing to offer sacrifices to Baal.

Jehu, however, commanded Jehonadab the Rechabite to inspect the temple and ensure that there were no YHWH worshippers within it. Following this, Jehu commanded the guards stationed at the temple to go in and execute everyone within the temple. They did this, and following that, they destroyed the temple. The biblical account summarizes this by saying, “So Jehu destroyed Baal worship in Israel” (2 Kings 10:28).

Many scholars have remained skeptical regarding the historicity, nature, and extent of the alleged religious purge reported in 2 Kings 10:18-28 (eg. Sergi 2017; Robker 2012, p. 296-297). These scholars often take a literalist interpretation of the language used to describe Jehu’s religious purge in 2 Kings 10, viewing the narrative as describing the complete destruction of Baal’s religious influence in Israel and of every single Baal worshiper; such an interpretation would, of course, be in conflict with the historical record, as onomastic evidence from the Samaria Ostraca indicate that Baal continued to be worshiped by many Israelites in the 8th century B.C.E. (, Andrew M. King proposes, however, that the language in the narrative of 2 Kings 10 is hyperbole, and that the narrative of Jehu’s coup as a whole uses Assyrian motifs in order to legitimize Jehu’s reign (King 2017). Hence, a literal interpretation of the religious purge in 2 Kings 10 is not necessary.

Whether Jehu’s coup was followed by a religious purge cannot be known for sure, but it is plausible. The account in 2 Kings 9-10 was written probably only decades after the events it describes, and clearly the ruling elite of the Northern Kingdom opposed the worship of Baal in the 8th century B.C.E. (given the content of the narrative of Jehu’s coup). 

Foreign Policy

Alongside the large-scale political changes that occurred during his reign, the reign of Jehu in Israel saw a variety of foreign policy changes that contrasted with Israel’s foreign policy during the time of the Omride Dynasty. Here, we will discuss Jehu’s geopolitical relations with several surrounding states.

Phoenician city-states

Assuming that 1 Kings 16:31 is, roughly speaking, reliable, Israelite king Ahab became engaged in a political marriage with Phoenician princess Jezebel (probably arranged by Ahab’s father, Omri). This marriage seems to have had significant economic and religious effects on the Northern Kingdom, and represents that during the time of the Omrides, Israel’s relations with the Phoenician kingdoms of Tyre and Sidon.

However, there can be little doubt that Jehu killed Jezebel during his seizure of power, in accordance with the general practices of usurpers. Jezebel’s death must have seriously damaged political relations between Israel and the Phoenician kingdoms.

Moab

During most of the time of the Omride Dynasty, Moab was a vassal of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. However, following the death of King Ahab – early in the reign of King Jehoram – Moab, under King Mesha, revolted against Israel, and despite a joint Israelite-Judahite (and perhaps also with the cooperation of Edom) campaign, Moab was able to break free from Israelite rule. These events are documented in the biblical account in 2 Kings 3, and also in the Mesha Stele.

As I discussed in more detail in an earlier post, the military campaigns attested on the Mesha Stele must have occurred during the reign of Jehu in the second half of the ninth century B.C.E., as the events and language of the inscription fit best with the geopolitical conditions of this period (see also Na’aman 2007; Bolen 2013; Lemaire 2007). Thus, the Mesha Stele provides important further information on geopolitical conditions during Jehu’s time.

During Jehu’s reign, Israel’s relationship with Moab was that of hostility and active military conflict. Most likely following the success of the Aramean campaigns against Israel from the north (discussed below), King Mesha of Moab engaged in a policy of territorial expansion northwards – recorded on the Mesha inscription – to recapture the mishor from Israelite rule. 

The Mesha Stele mentions the capture of three strategic locations in the mishor that were under Israelite rule: Ataroth (lines 10-14), Jahaz (lines 18-21), and Nebo (14-18). Mesha mentions that two of these cities – Jahaz and Ataroth – were “built” by “the king of Israel”. Archaeological evidence indicates that all three of the cities captured by Mesha – including Nebo – were probably fortified by an Omride king, perhaps King Ahab (Finkelstein and Lipschits 2010; Edwards 2019). 

Mesha encountered an Israelite military garrison at Ataroth – where the “men of Gad” (who Mesha must have considered to be Moabites) lived -, but was successful in capturing the site, eliminating the garrison there, and settling Moabites in the town.

“Now the men of Gad had dwelt in the land of Ataroth from of old; and the king of Israel built Ataroth for himself. I fought against the city and took it, and I killed all the warriors; the city is dedicated to Chemosh and for Moab. I brought back from there the altar hearth of (the god/king) and I [dr]agged it before Chemosh in (my) city. I settled therein the men of Sharon and Maharit” (Mesha Stele, lines 10-14).

At Nebo – where there was evidently a sanctuary of the Israelite god YHWH -, Mesha does not mention any military conflict with the Israelites there, which indicates that the site may have been captured by the Moabites without any significant military struggle. 

“Now Chemosh said to me: Go take Nebo from Israel. So I went by night and fought against it from the break of dawn till noon, and I took it and killed all of it – seven thousand men and boys, women and girls, and maidens – for I devoted it to ‘Ashtar-Chemosh. I took from there the [ves]sels of YHWH and dragged them before Chemosh” (Mesha Stele, lines 14-18).

At Jahaz, Mesha brought a force of 200 Moabite soldiers and seems to have captured the site with relative ease. The inscription mentions that “the king of Israel” had stayed in Jahaz “while he was fighting against me”, which may be a reference to the earlier unsuccessful campaign of Jehoram against Moab.

“Now the king of Israel had built Jahaz, and he dwelt therein while he was fighting against me. But Chemosh drove him out before me. I took from Moab two hundred men, all its divisions/heads of family, and I led them against Jahaz, and captured it to annex (it) to Dibon.”

Overall, during Jehu’s reign, Mesha successfully recaptured the mishor from Moab and greatly expanded Moab’s territory to the north. Jehu thus lost much territory in Transjordan to the Moabites. Even following Jehu’s death (and perhaps also Mesha’s death), the Moabites seem to have still been conducting smaller-scale campaigns against the Israelites, as evidenced by the prophetic narrative at 2 Kings 13:20 (which could preserve early memories). The mishor was never recaptured by Israel and remained Moabite territory for centuries to come. 

Judah

As both the Bible (1 Kings 22; 2 Kings 3; Kings 8:18, 28) and the Tel Dan Stele (lines 7-9) attest, Israel and Judah were political allies during the time of the Omride Dynasty, and often co-operated in offensive military campaigns enacted by the king of Israel. Though Judah was not a vassal of Omride Israel (Sergi 2016; Na’aman 2013; contra Finkelstein 2001, p. 110), the Northern Kingdom was dominant to Judah militarily and politically in this alliance. Following the death of King Ahaziah, and concurrent with Jehu’s seizure of power in the north, Queen Athaliah – Ahaziah’s mother – came to power in Judah. She ruled for about five years, before she was dethroned and executed (2 Kings 11).

There is only limited information in our textual sources regarding Israelite-Judahite relations during Jehu’s reign. However, what we can say with relative certainty is that the alliance between Israel and Judah came to a close following the end of the Battle of Ramoth-gilead in 841 B.C.E., as there are no more mentions in the biblical sources or in any other textual sources of joint Israelite-Judahite military ventures. 

If Jehu did indeed kill King Ahaziah and the royal Judahite family – as the account of 2 Kings 9-10 reports (but as is somewhat historically dubious given the Tel Dan Stele’s testimony) – this would have largely destroyed positive Israelite-Judahite relations, at least during Queen Athaliah’s reign. Omer Sergi has argued that the killing of Athaliah in circa. 836 B.C.E. (2 Kings 11) was initiated by pro-Israelite officials within the Kingdom of Judah, who sought to complete Jehu’s extermination of the Omride Dynasty and as a sign of fidelity to the Northern Kingdom (Sergi 2013).

Assyria

During the reign of King Ahab and at least most of the reign of his son, Jehoram, Israel was in active military conflict with the Neo-Assyrian Empire under King Shalmaneser III, as a part of a coalition of Levantine states that opposed Shalmaneser III’s attempts to expand territorially into the Levant. Israel was present at the Battle of Qarqar with twelve other Levantine kingdoms, opposing Assyria It has been proposed that, following the disintegration of the anti-Assyrian coalition and the outbreak of war with Aram-Damascus in circa. 844-841 B.C.E., Jehoram switched his foreign policy to that of cooperation with Assyria; however, there is no concrete evidence for this.

Upon becoming king, Jehu switched Israel’s foreign policy to that of cooperation with Assyria. During Shalmaneser III’s campaign to the Levant in 841 B.C.E., Jehu paid tribute to the Assyrians. This is recorded on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, a monumental Assyrian obelisk discovered in 1846 which records tribute that Shalmaneser III received from surrounding kingdoms who had submitted to him and includes artistic depictions of the paying of trib. Scene 2 of the monument includes an artistic depiction of King Jehu of Israel bowing down to Shalmaneser III and several Assyrian officials (Side A), along with Israelites bringing tribute to the Assyrians; this is the only ancient artistic depiction ever discovered of any Israelite or Judahite king. The relief has the following caption,

“I received tribute from Jehu, son of Omri; silver, gold, a golden bowl, a golden tureen, golden pails, tin, the staffs ‘of the king’s hand’ and a spear.” (RIMA 3, A.O. 102.88).

The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III refers to Jehu as the “son of Omri”. Since Jehu was not the literal son of the Israelite king Omri, this statement has been somewhat of an enigma in scholarship. Several solutions have been offered in the literature; some have argued that “son of Omri” is merely a political designation for Israel, while others have suggested that Jehu was a distant cousin of Jehoram and thus related to the Omrides (Čapek 2010; Schneider 1995). Nadav Na’aman has proposed that the Assyrian reference to Jehu as a “son of Omri” was a political attempt at legitimizing Jehu’s kingship; in other words, they knew that Jehu was a usurper, but since he was an ally of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, they chose to refrain from referring to this and instead claimed him as a descendant of the Omride Dynasty in order to legitimize him (Na’aman 1998). Na’aman’s view seems to be the most reasonable solution.

Wars with Aram-Damascus

The most significant part of Jehu’s reign was the significant military losses that he suffered against King Hazael of Aram-Damascus throughout his reign, attested in several textual and archaeological sources.

Shortly after the joint Israelite-Judahite campaign at Ramoth-gilead (Sergi 2017, p. 90-91, ftn. 32), Assyrian king Shalmaneser III launched a military campaign against the Kingdom of Aram-Damascus, recorded in Assyrian records. Though the Assyrians achieved some military successes, they were unable to capture Damascus (RIMA 3, A.O. 102.8, lines 1’’-27’’). Three years later, in 838 B.C.E, Shalmaneser III returned for a rematch with Hazael. Shalmaneser III destroyed several Aramean cities and inflicted significant damage on the kingdom and received tribute by various states at this time, but was once again unsuccessful in capturing Damascus (RIMA 3, A.O. 102.8, lines 152-162’b). 

It was most likely following this  – around 830 B.C.E. – that Hazael, building on his previous victory at Ramoth-gilead, began a series of offensive military campaigns against the Northern Kingdom. Hazael’s campaigns devastated Israel, and are documented primarily in the biblical texts.

2 Kings 10:23-33 reports the following, 

“In those days the Lord began to reduce the size of Israel. Hazael overpowered the Israelites throughout their territory east of the Jordan in all the land of Gilead (the region of Gad, Reuben, and Manasseh), from Aroer by the Arnon Gorge through Gilead to Bashan.”

2 Kings 13:3-7, 22-25 provides further information about the effects of the Aramean campaigns on Israel. The campaigns are also attested in the Book of Amos (Amos 1:3-5; 6:2).

The painful memory that the war and loss of territory that Israel suffered under the hands of Aram-Damascus during Jehu’s reign on Israelite consciousness is reflected in the words of the prophet Elisha in the narrative regarding his meetup with Hazael at 2 Kings 8:12,

“‘Because I know the harm you will do to the Israelites’, he answered. ‘You will set fire to their fortified places, kill their young men with the sword, dash their little children to the ground, and rip open their pregnant women.’”

The Mesha Stele also contains an indirect reference to Hazael’s victories against Jehu, corroborating the biblical accounts textually.  After discussing the downfall of Israelite king Omri’s son and “his house”, Mesha states, on line 7 of the inscription, that “Israel perished utterly forever and ever” (Na’aman 2007). Given that the Mesha Stele was authored in the late 9th century B.C.E., and that this statement comes right after discussing the fall of the king of Israel and the house of Omri, the perishing of Israel mentioned in the Mesha Stele – a direct testimony that some political disaster befell Israel in this period – almost certainly refers to the military losses that Israel suffered at the hands of Aram-Damascus (Na’aman 2007, p. 155-156; Lemaire 2007, p. 136-137; Bolen 2013, p. 45-46). 

Archaeological evidence from excavated sites in the territory of the Northern Kingdom also attest to the bitter consequences of the Aramean campaigns against Israel at this time. Destruction and/or abandonment layers from sites dating to the second half of the 9th century B.C. – such as Hazor IX, Megiddo VA-IVB, the Jezreel Compound, Aphek A7, Yoq’neam XIV, and others (see the destruction of Philistine Gath as well) –  can be found at various sites in the Northern Kingdom (Kleiman 2016; Na’aman 1997; Kleiman 2015). 

From the biblical and archaeological evidence, we can see that Hazael’s campaigns resulted in the Aramean occupation of (1) all Israelite territory east of the Jordan, with the exception of the mishor, which was gradually occupied by the Moabites in the second half of the 9th century B.C.E., (2) the Galilee and northern valleys, and (3) the coastal plains. Thus, during much of Jehu’s reign, the Northern Kingdom of Israel was simply limited to the Samarian hill country. This was the downfall of Israel.

Conclusion

Jehu was a military official in the late years of the Omride Dynasty who violently usurped the throne, ending the decades-long Omride Dynasty in Israel and establishing the House of Jehu as the ruling family in the Northern Kingdom. The actions that led to his rise to the throne, along with the foreign policy Jehu pursued during his reign (as well as the foreign policy of the Omrides in their late years) led to considerable inner political, geopolitical, and perhaps social changes within the Israelite kingdom. Most notably, Jehu’s reign in the second half of the 9th century B.C.E. saw widespread territorial and military loss at the hands of Hazael, king of Aram-Damascus (along with some losses to the Moabites in the southeast). Israel, once a military superpower in the mid-9th century B.C. during the days of the Omrides, had now, in the words of Mesha, “perished utterly forever and ever”. 

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